In 1924, John Burdon Sanderson Haldane, aka JBS Haldane, published Daedalus; or Science and The Future, hereafter Daedalus, which was a written version of a lecture that he gave in 1923. In his book, Haldane offers his personal predictions about what science will be able to achieve by the year 2073. He proposes that scientists will be able to perform ectogenesis, which he defines as the gestation of an organism in an artificial environment. He argues that the development of ectogenesis will help improve the human species by facilitating the selective breeding of individuals with desirable traits. Haldane’s vision of ectogenesis in Daedalus foreshadowed in vitro fertilization, or IVF, an assisted-reproductive technology in which scientists fertilize an egg in a laboratory dish, then implant the resulting embryo into a woman’s uterus where it then develops into a fetus. As of 2025, physicians deliver over 500,000 infants per year who were conceived using assisted-reproductive technologies such as IVF. Haldane’s concept of ectogenesis as he described it in Daedalus inspired both supportive and critical responses among readers and has shaped discussions about reproductive technologies down to the present day.

In 1970, Shulamith Firestone, a self-described radical feminist and writer, published The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution, hereafter The Dialectic of Sex. In the book, she argues for the replacement of natural reproduction with artificial reproduction in order to provide women liberation from their reproductive biology. Firestone envisions a day when scientific technology will enable children to be conceived and grown completely outside of a woman’s uterus, what scientists call ectogenesis. At the time of publication, the technology to enable ectogenesis did not exist, although forms of assisted reproduction, such as in vitro fertilization and intrauterine insemination, were starting to be developed. The Dialectic of Sex was one of the first feminist publications supporting ectogenesis, and, as of 2025, it continues to stimulate thinking among many researchers and ethicists who study the implications of new reproductive technologies for women.

In 2020, Frans Schutgens and Hans Clevers published “Human Organoids: Tools for Understanding Biology and Treating Diseases,” hereafter “Human Organoids,” in the journal Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease. Organoids are miniature, three-dimensional structures that closely mimic the structure and function of a specific organ. Scientists make organoids in the lab using stem cells, which are a type of cell that has the ability to replicate themselves or to develop into various cell types in the body. “Human Organoids” is a review article that describes the use of human organoids as tools for understanding development, the biological processes that occur in the body, and the treatment of diseases and disorders. “Human Organoids” provided researchers with an in-depth resource on the use of organoids for disease modeling, finding new treatments for various forms of cancer, and treating genetic conditions.

In 2006, Shideng Bao and colleagues published “Glioma Stem Cells Promote Radioresistance by Preferential Activation of the DNA Damage Response,” hereafter “Glioma Stem Cells,” in Nature. The study describes how cells within a glioblastoma, a type of fast-growing brain tumor, have a high expression of a protein called CD133, which is associated with neural stem cells. Among those cells with high expression of CD133, there exist many stem cells called glioma stem cells. In the paper, Bao and colleagues demonstrate that glioma stem cells are more resistant to radiation compared to other cells within a glioblastoma tumor, and that their resistance has to do with their ability to repair DNA. “Glioma Stem Cells” was one of the first studies to identify the role of glioma stem cells in resistance to radiation and laid the framework for future studies that investigated their role in tumor progression and recurrence as well as novel treatments targeting those cells.

In 1949, Douglas Gairdner, a pediatrician in Cambridge, England, published “Fate of the Foreskin: A Study of Circumcision,” hereafter, “Fate of the Foreskin,” in the British Medical Journal. In the article, Gairdner highlights what he saw as a seriously understudied topic, the natural development of the foreskin in males. Although physicians were then circumcising tens of thousands of male infants annually in England, data on the normal anatomy and function of the foreskin were scarce. In “Fate of the Foreskin,” Gairdner assembles those data and uses them to argue against performing circumcision to treat conditions like phimosis. Phimosis is when the foreskin tightly encases the glans, or head, of the penis and cannot retract. Gairdner finds that an unretractable foreskin is actually the normal state for newborn males, and that the foreskin will become retractable on its own over a period of months to years. By showing that phimosis is not a pathological condition, “Fate of the Foreskin” questioned the legitimacy of routine circumcision, and ultimately led to a steep decline of the practice in England.

In 2003, Sheila Singh and colleagues published “Identification of a Cancer Stem Cell in Human Brain Tumors” in the journal Cancer Research. The study examines a small population of cells within brain cancers that have abilities similar to those of neural stem cells and can maintain the growth of a brain tumor. The researchers identified the brain cancer stem cells by looking at the expression of proteins CD133 and nestin, which are usually present in neural stem cells. In addition, they characterized brain cancer stem cells as having the ability to quickly proliferate and self-renew, form tumor spheres, as well as differentiate in a manner that resembles characteristics of the original brain tumor from which those cells originated. “Identification of a Cancer Stem Cell in Human Brain Tumors” was one of the first studies to identify cancer stem cells in brain cancer and laid the framework for future research investigating the role of brain cancer stem cells in response to treatment, as well as the recurrence of a tumor after treatment.

In 1999, John Ancona Robertson, a researcher who studied bioethics and law, published “Ethics and Policy in Embryonic Stem Cell Research,” hereafter “Ethics and Policy,” in the Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal. In the article, Robertson analyzes the ethical debates around research that uses human embryonic stem cells, or ESCs, and categorizes the different kinds of concerns within those debates. Researchers obtain human ESCs from human embryos. ESCs are pluripotent, which means they have the capability to transform into various cell types, such as skin cells or muscle cells. Robertson explains that ESCs have great medical potential, but since obtaining them requires destroying embryos, some people oppose the use of ESCs in research. After reviewing the main concerns present in debates over ESC research, he concludes that ESC research is still morally permissible. With “Ethics and Policy,” Robertson argued that ESC research should go forward and be federally funded in the US at a time when many politicians, bioethicists, and scientists opposed such research.

In 2020, Jessica Trowbridge and colleagues published “Exposure to Perfluoroalkyl Substances in a Cohort of Women Firefighters and Office Workers in San Francisco,” hereafter “Exposure to PFAS in Women Firefighters,” in the journal Environmental Science & Technology. The researchers, affiliated with the University of California in Berkeley, California, aimed to investigate occupational exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances, or PFAS, by comparing blood samples between female firefighters and office workers. PFAS are synthetic chemicals found in firefighting foam, textiles, and many household products. Research has shown that exposure to PFAS can increase the risk of health complications, including cancer and reproductive concerns. Trowbridge and colleagues sought to address a gap in previous studies of PFAS, which primarily focused on male firefighters. Their study documented increased PFAS exposure in female firefighters compared to office workers and highlighted potential health risks, particularly for those who are pregnant.