Ben Barres researched neurobiology during the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries as a professor at Stanford University School of Medicine in Stanford, California. His primary research focus was glial cells, which are the most abundant cells of the nervous system that support and protect neurons. There are many kinds of glial cells, and Barres examined their roles in the nervous system as well as in development and disease. Prior to Barres’s work, researchers believed that neurons were the primary players in brain function and that glial cells played a passive role. Barres discovered that glial cells play a key role in creating and eliminating synapses, which are the connections between nerve cells. Barres was transgender and after transitioning at age forty-three spoke frequently about sexism in science. Through his scientific research, Barres brought attention to the function of glial cells in development and disease, and through his activism he became a role model for LGBTQIA+ people in science.

In 2020, Frans Schutgens and Hans Clevers published “Human Organoids: Tools for Understanding Biology and Treating Diseases,” hereafter “Human Organoids,” in the journal Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease. Organoids are miniature, three-dimensional structures that closely mimic the structure and function of a specific organ. Scientists make organoids in the lab using stem cells, which are a type of cell that has the ability to replicate themselves or to develop into various cell types in the body. “Human Organoids” is a review article that describes the use of human organoids as tools for understanding development, the biological processes that occur in the body, and the treatment of diseases and disorders. “Human Organoids” provided researchers with an in-depth resource on the use of organoids for disease modeling, finding new treatments for various forms of cancer, and treating genetic conditions.

In 1999, John Ancona Robertson, a researcher who studied bioethics and law, published “Ethics and Policy in Embryonic Stem Cell Research,” hereafter “Ethics and Policy,” in the Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal. In the article, Robertson analyzes the ethical debates around research that uses human embryonic stem cells, or ESCs, and categorizes the different kinds of concerns within those debates. Researchers obtain human ESCs from human embryos. ESCs are pluripotent, which means they have the capability to transform into various cell types, such as skin cells or muscle cells. Robertson explains that ESCs have great medical potential, but since obtaining them requires destroying embryos, some people oppose the use of ESCs in research. After reviewing the main concerns present in debates over ESC research, he concludes that ESC research is still morally permissible. With “Ethics and Policy,” Robertson argued that ESC research should go forward and be federally funded in the US at a time when many politicians, bioethicists, and scientists opposed such research.