In 2009, Shoukhrat Mitalipov, Masahito Tachibana, and their team of researchers developed the technology of mitochondrial gene replacement therapy to prevent the transmission of a mitochondrial disease from mother to offspring in primates. Mitochondria contain some of the body's genetic material, called mitochondrial DNA. Occasionally, the mitochondrial DNA possesses mutations. Mitalipov and Tachibana, researchers at the Oregon National Primate Research Center in Beaverton, Oregon, developed a technique to remove the nucleus of the mother and place it in a donor oocyte, or immature egg cell, with healthy mitochondria. The resulting offspring contain the genetic material of three separate individuals and do not have the disease. Mitalipov and Tachibana's technology of mitochondrial gene replacement built on decades of research by different scientists and enables researchers to prevent the transmission of human mitochondrial diseases from mother to offspring.

Shoukhrat Mitalipov, Masahito Tachibana, and their team of researchers replaced the mitochondrial genes of primate embryonic stem cells via spindle transfer. Spindle replacement, also called spindle transfer, is the process of removing the genetic material found in the nucleus of one egg cell, or oocyte, and placing it in another egg that had its nucleus removed. Mitochondria are organelles found in all cells and contain some of the cell’s genetic material. Mutations in the mitochondrial DNA can lead to neurodegenerative and muscle diseases. Mitalipov and Tachibana used spindle replacement to produce healthy offspring from an egg with mutated mitochondria in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). The experiment showed that spindle transfer eliminated the chance of transmission of mitochondrial diseases from the affected primates to their offspring, offering the potential to eliminate mitochondrial diseases in humans.

Ben Barres researched neurobiology during the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries as a professor at Stanford University School of Medicine in Stanford, California. His primary research focus was glial cells, which are the most abundant cells of the nervous system that support and protect neurons. There are many kinds of glial cells, and Barres examined their roles in the nervous system as well as in development and disease. Prior to Barres’s work, researchers believed that neurons were the primary players in brain function and that glial cells played a passive role. Barres discovered that glial cells play a key role in creating and eliminating synapses, which are the connections between nerve cells. Barres was transgender and after transitioning at age forty-three spoke frequently about sexism in science. Through his scientific research, Barres brought attention to the function of glial cells in development and disease, and through his activism he became a role model for LGBTQIA+ people in science.