In humans, sex determination is the process that determines the biological sex of an offspring and, as a result, the sexual characteristics that they will develop. Humans typically develop as either male or female, primarily depending on the combination of sex chromosomes that they inherit from their parents. The human sex chromosomes, called X and Y, are structures in human cells made up of tightly bound deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, and proteins. Those are molecules that contain the instructions for the development and functioning of all life forms, including the development of physical traits and body parts that correspond with each biological sex. Humans who inherit two X chromosomes typically develop as females, while humans with one X and one Y chromosome typically develop as males. Sex determination is the beginning of the development of many characteristics that influence how a human looks and functions as well as the societal expectations that other humans have for each other.

The Gomco circumcision clamp is a metal device that medical practitioners use to perform circumcision, or the removal of the foreskin of the penis. Created in 1934 by Hiram S. Yellen, a physician who studied obstetrics and gynecology, and inventor Aaron A. Goldstein, the Gomco clamp was one of the first and, as of 2025, is the most commonly used circumcision clamp in the United States. To use the Gomco clamp, the medical practitioner first separates the foreskin from the glans, or head, of the penis, then places the foreskin into the clamp. The practitioner tightens the clamp, which crushes a thin, circular ribbon of foreskin, and then cuts off the remaining foreskin above the crushed portion. The Gomco clamp reduces the risk of blood loss, controls the amount of foreskin removed, protects the glans of the penis during circumcision, and allows for a clean surgical cut. By simplifying the surgical procedure of circumcision and reducing the risk of complications, the Gomco clamp helped to institutionalize routine, non-therapeutic infantile circumcision as part of the childbirth process in US hospitals.

Non-therapeutic infant circumcision is the surgical removal of healthy foreskin from a male infant, often shortly after birth, for the purpose of achieving potential future medical benefits. Today, in 2025, the practice is common the United States but not as common in other Western industrialized countries. Though circumcision itself is an ancient cultural practice, doctors began performing circumcision for medical purposes only in the nineteenth century, and primarily in English-speaking countries. Orthopedic surgeon Lewis Sayre, who practiced medicine in New York City, New York, in the late nineteenth century popularized circumcision as a treatment for conditions such as muscle paralysis. Sayre’s ideas eventually fell out of favor, but doctors increasingly identified other reasons to perform the procedure, including the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases, urinary tract infections, and cancer. As of 2025, doctors, parents, ethicists, and others continue to debate the medical value of circumcision as well as the ethics of operating on the healthy genitals of people who cannot consent.